There exists an intricate web of consequential interactions that happen within ecosystems. When conditions like climate and land use, as two examples, remail relatively stable, populations sizes and habitats within ecosystems and their interactions are more predictable. However, when conditions change, especially abruptly in relatively short periods of time, more unpredictable interactions occur that have implications for populations (i.e., both human and more than) within the ecosystem.

Understanding geologic time is a core idea in science that has deep connections to other areas of geology (e.g., plate tectonics), biology (e.g., evolution), and astronomy (e.g., planetary science). The topic, however, is challenging for students to understand because of the enormous timescale of the Earth. Therefore, students need to make sense of the 4.6 billion year history of Earth as well as the history of life on Earth. This requires an understanding of the depositional environments that create rock strata for us to read, relative dating ideas such as the principle of superposition and the use of index fossils, and absolute dating techniques such as radiometric dating. Taken together, these topics provide students not only an understanding of the history of the Earth, but an understanding of how we have pieced this history together with multiple forms of evidence.

At the upper elementary level, Grades 3-5 students are expected to understand that offspring look  similar to their parents because they share genetic information. This information is important  because it will later be used toward understanding what genetic information specifies about our traits.  Students in this grade band are also expected to notice, but not explain, the effects of environments  on traits. Many behaviors of animals have both genetic and learned components. Students in Grades  3-5 should be able to attend to and notice important aspects of genetic phenomena such as  environmental effects. 

HS-LS2-7. 

• Design, evaluate, and refine a solution for reducing the impacts of human activities on the environment and biodiversity. [Clarification Statement: Examples of human activities can include urbanization, building dams, and dissemination of invasive species.] 

MS-ESS1-4

• Construct a scientific explanation based on evidence from rock strata for how the geologic time scale is used to organize Earth's 4.6-billion-year-old history.

3-LS4-2

• Use evidence to construct an explanation for how the variations in characteristics among  individuals of the same species may provide advantages in surviving, finding mates, and reproducing.  [Clarification Statement: Examples of cause and effect relationships could be plants that have larger  thorns than other plants may be less likely to be eaten by predators; and, animals that have better camouflage coloration than other animals may be more likely to survive and therefore more likely to  leave offspring.]

In the United States, the incidence of Lyme disease is considered to be disproportionately high among Whites because of risk exposure. However,  the CDC points out that Hispanics are at a greater risk of contracting Lyme Disease due to occupational exposure, which is not reflected in the CDC surveillance numbers. Meanwhile, a UCLA study found that approximately 34% of Black patients had later-stage neurological complications when they were diagnosed, compared with 9% of White patients. Reasons that the surveillance numbers may underreport the true incidence among some racial and ethnic groups include inadequate healthcare access, language barriers, and lack of awareness. Study also suggests that many physicians may not have the knowledge or training to properly recognize how Lyme disease appears on dark skin, which could cause both underdiagnosis and delays in diagnosis.

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In July 2018, Quest Diagnostics released a report finding that Lyme disease has been detected in each of the 50 states in the United States and the District of Columbia. Lyme disease usually causes symptoms such as a rash, fever, headache, and fatigue. If not treated early, however, the infection can spread to joints, heart, and nervous system creating long-term health problems. Among the findings of the report, Lyme disease, an infectious disease transmitted to humans through ticks’ bites, was detected and prevalent in northeastern US. Surprisingly, it's now found in states including Arizona which are not historically associated with significant rates of Lyme disease. Additionally, California and Florida saw the largest absolute increases in positive Lyme disease test results in this latest report.

Since the 1990s, Lyme disease duration has extended, and its reach is expanding. Lyme disease has increased threefold in the US over the last two decades, with about 35,000 cases officially reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention each year, while it is estimated that actual cases could be more than 10 times higher than diagnosed cases. Further estimates also predict that the cases of Lyme disease in the US could increase by as much as 20 percent nationally by the middle of the 21st century. Besides concentrating in the northeast, mid-Atlantic, and upper Midwest, pockets of Lyme cases are also reported on the West Coast.

Further, some ethnic and racial differences have been noted in how Lyme disease is experienced. For example, Hispanics were found to be more likely than non-Hispanics to have signs of disseminated infection or infection that has had time to progress without early treatment. When comparing the incidence rates of Lyme Disease between Whites and African Americans, research suggests that the incidence rates of Lyme disease have been shown to be higher among Whites, while African Americans are often diagnosed with more advanced or disseminated inflections than Whites. Dr. Dan Ly, an assistant professor of medicine at the David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California, Los Angeles, examined racial differences in the distribution of clinical manifestations of Lyme disease. His team identified 6,171 White Medicare patients and 167 Black Medicare patients newly diagnosed with Lyme disease in 2016. They found that about 34% of Black patients showed neurologic signs of Lyme disease when they were first diagnosed, a symptom of disseminated inflection, compared to only 9% of white patients.

The Colorado Plateau encompasses an area of approximately 140,000 square miles in the four corners region of Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. Uplifted over a mile above the surrounding area, the plateau contains a number of canyons and other geologic features. The Grand Staircase refers to an immense sequence of sedimentary rock layers that stretch south from Bryce Canyon National Park, through Zion National Park, and into the Grand Canyon National Park. These canyons provide a unique opportunity as they reveal nearly 1.7 billion years of Earth’s history between them including the first multicellular organisms, the rise and fall of dinosaurs, and the rise of mammals.

Emperor penguins living in Antarctica experience and survive freezing temperatures,  averaging around -20℃ falling as low as -50℃. In 2021, the average temperature recorded at the  Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station between April and September was -61℃, the coldest temperature  recorded since 1957. Emperor penguins are often in contact with snow and ice, and yet somehow, they  escape frostbite, a cold injury to the skin. Emperor penguins must adapt both structurally and  behaviorally to their environment. With these extreme weather conditions, how do emperor penguins  survive in Antarctica? 

[Lyme Disease] 

A Brief History of Lyme Disease in Connecticut: 

https://portal.ct.gov/DPH/Epidemiology-and-Emerging-Infections/A-Brief-History-of-Lyme-Diseas e-in-Connecticut 

Lyme Disease Risk Influences Human Settlement in the Wildland–Urban Interface: Evidence from a Longitudinal Analysis of Counties in the Northeastern United States 

Lyme Disease Risk Influences Human Settlement in the Wildland–Urban Interface: Evidence from a Longitudinal Analysis of Counties in the Northeastern United States - PMC 

Lyme Disease Map 

Lyme Disease Map 

Mapping the Spread of Lyme Disease 

How prevalent is Lyme disease where you live? Find out with this interactive map. - News @ Northeastern 

Moon, K. A., Pollak, J., Hirsch, A. G., Aucott, J. N., Nordberg, C., Heaney, C. D., & Schwartz, B. S. (2019). Epidemiology of lyme disease in Pennsylvania 2006–2014 using electronic health records. Ticks and tick-borne diseases, 10(2), 241-250. 

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877959X18301316?casa_token=umeeZzXFUYgAAAAA:1ds-FEYxmS8R7mcTLik0R9QTmuY_vCa6Nn2qkh6XcqrZovG44RYgs2K29vVJ7kK-s77Ul-nS pg 

Lyme Disease and Climate Change Notebook 

[Environment Changes] 

Scientific American: Lyme and Other Tick-borne Diseases Are on the Rise—But Why? Lyme and other tick-borne diseases are on the rise. But why? 

Why Lyme and other tick-borne diseases are on the rise | PBS NewsHour 

the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is actually using the number of LD cases as a climate change indicator 

Climate Change Indicators: Lyme Disease | US EPA 

“Ticking Bomb”: The Impact of Climate Change on the Incidence of Lyme Disease “Ticking Bomb”: The Impact of Climate Change on the Incidence of Lyme Disease 

A Ticking Clock: Lyme Disease, Climate Change, & Public Health Lyme Disease Under Climate Change 

AND VIDEO: https://youtu.be/eSPsZdoZbDk 

Lyme Disease, How Climate Change Helped Lyme Disease Invade North America Lyme disease: How climate change helped the illness invade America - Vox 

AND VIDEO: https://youtu.be/FHQqKWxF1Tg 

Climate Change is Increasing Risk of Lyme Disease in North America 

Climate change is increasing Lyme disease risk in New England 

AND VIDEO: https://youtu.be/Xi8JPsM8dzE 

Tick Borne Infections & The Complicated Role of Climate Change 

Tick-borne infections and the complicated role of climate change - Mayo Clinic News Network AND VIDEO: Tick-borne infections and the complicated role of climate change 

Robinson, S. J., Neitzel, D. F., Moen, R. A., Craft, M. E., Hamilton, K. E., Johnson, L. B., Mulla, D. J., Munderloh, U. G., Redig, P. T., Smith, K. E., Turner, C. L., Umber, J. K., & Pelican, K. M. (2015). Disease risk in a dynamic environment: the spread of tick-borne pathogens in Minnesota, USA. EcoHealth, 12(1), 152–163. 

Disease Risk in a Dynamic Environment: The Spread of Tick-Borne Pathogens in Minnesota, USA 

Eisen, R. J., Eisen, L., Ogden, N. H., & Beard, C. B. (2016). Linkages of weather and climate with Ixodes scapularis and Ixodes pacificus (Acari: Ixodidae), enzootic transmission of Borrelia burgdorferi, and Lyme disease in North America. Journal of medical entomology, 53(2), 250-261. https://academic.oup.com/jme/article/53/2/250/2459687?login=true 

[Social Justice] 

Racial Differences in Reported Lyme Disease Incidence: 

Racial Differences in Reported Lyme Disease Incidence | American Journal of Epidemiology | Oxford Academic 

Lyme Disease in Hispanics, United States, 2000–2013 - PMC 

Polly Murray - Mom from Lyme, CT who questioned Lyme Disease but doctors didn’t listen: Polly Murray sounded alarm for mysterious illness now named Lyme disease. 

Podcast - Stuff you should know also mentions 

Discussions and data about social justice/racial differences 

More research, better treatment for Lyme disease sought amid rising case rates Advocates push for more research of tick-borne Lyme disease 

3 ways racial bias and stereotypes, algorithms affect clinical decision-making: KFF 3 ways racial bias and stereotypes, algorithms affect clinical decision-making: KFF 

Health Care Quality Perceptions among Foreign-Born Latinos and the Importance of Speaking the Same Language 

https://www.jabfm.org/content/23/6/745 

Lyme Disease in Hispanics, United States, 2000–2013 

Lyme Disease in Hispanics, United States, 2000–2013 - PMC 

Fewer patients of color have health-care providers who look like them 

Fewer patients of color have health-care providers who look like them - The Washington Post 

Lyme Disease Often Spotted at Later Stage in Black Patients 

Lyme Disease Often Spotted at Later Stage in Black Patients 

Medical Racism 

Medical Racism Is Very Real, and It's Time To End It | Teen Vogue

Grand Staircase (Wikipedia) 

Geologic Formations (Grand Canyon) 

Making North America (Episode 1) (PBS Nova) 

Geology (Zion National Park) 

Ancient Landscapes of the Colorado Plateau 

Reading the Pages of Grand Canyon Geology

Why Don’t Penguins Feet Freeze? https://www.univ.ox.ac.uk/book/why-dont-penguins-feet freeze/#:~:text=Why%20don't%20penguins%20feet,them%20sticking%20to%20the%20ice. 

Why Don’t Penguins’ Feet Freeze on Ice? https://www.livescience.com/32495-why-dont-penguin-feet freeze-on-ice.html 

Cold Feet: Why Don’t Penguins Feet Freeze? https://www.penguinsinternational.org/2019/12/22/cold feet-why-dont-penguins-feet-freeze/ 

Why Don’t Penguins’ Feet Freeze? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Nztud0JFStM 

Why Penguin Feet Don’t Freeze? https://animals.howstuffworks.com/mammals/why-penguin-feet dont-freeze.htm 

Why Don’t Penguins’ Feet Freeze?: A Remarkable Evolutionary Adaptation  https://interestingengineering.com/why-dont-penguins-feet-freeze-evolutionary-adaptation 

Cool Antarctica https://www.coolantarctica.com/Antarctica%20fact%20file/wildlife/Emperor penguins.php 

Emperor Penguins https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/birds/facts/emperor-penguin 

Antarctic animals adapting to the cold https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/animals/adapting-to-the-cold/#:~:text=Behavioural%20adaptations&text=Emperor%20penguins%20form%20large%20huddles,loss%20by%20up%20to%2050%25

Why are cases of Lyme disease increasing in the US and being experienced differently among some racial and ethnic groups? 

Why are there different rock layers across the canyons of the Grand Staircase and how can these layers help us understand the deep history of the Colorado Plateau? 

With the extreme weather conditions in Antarctica, how do emperor penguins survive? 

Lyme disease is one of the fastest-growing infectious diseases in the US, and has spread to more and more places during the past years. Although infections used to mainly occur in summer, now it isreported even in winter months. As a vector-borne disease, Lyme disease is transmitted to humans through the bite of infected ticks that carry the Borrelia burgdorferi bacteria. In the eastern part of the US, ticks that carry Lyme disease – black-legged ticks, also known as deer ticks, Ixodes scapularis – can transmit at least six diseases. Over the past two decades, the range of ticks has expanded substantially in the upper Midwest, northeast and mid-Atlantic states, and they are now found in each state in the U.S. Increases of the geographic range of ticks and the number of Lyme disease cases may derive from climate change and land use.

The most important factors of ticks’ activity are temperature and moisture. Ticks are ectotherms that cannot control their internal body temperature but instead adapt to the outside temperature, so they are sensitive to the environment. Ticks prefer warmer temperatures and more precipitation, especially immature ticks – nymphs – through whose bites most humans are infected, because they are smaller and consequently less likely to be detected after a bite. Nowadays, global warming has extended the period of time that is warm enough for tick activity, thus lengthening the season that ticks actively seek new hosts in a year, creating more opportunity for disease transmission, and leading to more cases of disease. Besides, cold winter temperatures in the northern and higher altitude areas used to kill ticks. Because of increasing global temperatures in connection to climate change, however, these areas have become warmer. Global warming also contributes to increasing precipitation in the east and northeastern parts of the US, increasing the range of places with suitable habitats for tick survival.

Furthermore, sensitivity to temperature impacts the tick life cycle. Global warming accelerates the developmental rates of ticks, thus quickens reproduction for the bacteria-bearing ticks, and also leads to an increase of tick populations.

In addition to global warming, human activity is influencing the wildlife populations that act as hosts for ticks, thus affecting the prevalence of Lyme disease in forests. Since not all hosts are able to carry the bacterial disease, when a variety of potential hosts exists, the chance that a tick will feed on an infected animal is reduced or diluted, which, in turn, reduces the chance that a tick bite will transmit Lyme disease. The more potential hosts that exist in an ecosystem, the less likely the infected hosts are able to transmit the bacteria. Human activities including habitat fragmentation from roadways and suburban development, however, has decreased the diversity of tick hosts. For example, forest fragmentation causes a decrease in populations of predators like foxes, owls, hawks, and other predators who typically feed on small hosts like mice. This contributes to the possibility of white-footed mice numbers subsequently exploding while populations of other hosts declining, increasing the possibility of mice serving as tick hosts and infecting ticks with Lyme disease, and in turn increasing the risk of human exposure to Lyme disease. Besides, human risk of exposure to disease is higher in more fragmented forest habitats than in more contiguous forest habitats. With more buildings (e.g., homes, shopping centers) built beside fragmented forests, more people are living near the animals that carry ticks. Humans are also more likely to spend more time outdoors in warmer seasons, increasing the time of human exposure to tick bites and Lyme disease.

Differences of socioeconomic position and opportunity among racial and ethnic groups when compared to white populations including occupation, income, wealth, awareness, and healthcare access, as well as white-centered medical resources may account for differences in how some racial and ethnic groups experience Lyme disease. First, a higher proportion of outdoor workers and longer outdoor working hours may account for Hispanics being at greater risk for Lyme disease infection than the general population. Current and historical access and feelings of belonging in outdoor spaces also influence experiences and exposure to Lyme Disease of different racial and ethnic groups. Second, members of racial and ethnic minority groups are more likely to encounter barriers to getting care, such as a lack of health insurance or not being paid when missing work to get care. Further, if symptoms persist, patients need more high cost treatment. When facing costly treatment, low income groups are more reluctant to get diagnosed. Racial and ethnic groups may encounter medical racism including misdiagnosis and misunderstanding between doctors and patients in clinics as well. All of these differences help account for the differences in how different racial and ethnic groups experience Lyme disease.

The Colorado Plateau is a formation that covers parts of Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. This area has been uplifted over a mile in elevation. Canyons were formed throughout the entire plateau through weathering and erosion by wind and water. This is how the canyons formed. The exposed walls of these canyons help us understand the history of the earth. Different layers of rock in the walls represent different eras in geologic and biologic history of the earth. The canyons Bryce, Zion, and the Grand Canyon represent “stair steps” of the Grand Staircase of the Colorado Plateau. The Grand Staircase shows geological history from 1.77 billion years ago to the present. 

Starting at the bottom of the Grand Staircase places us at the very bottom of the Grand Canyon. The Grand Canyon allows us to see back in time because it uncovered rock layers from when the Colorado Plateau was still part of the ocean. The Grand Canyon was formed by erosion of the Colorado River. The lower rock layers are older than the newer ones layed on top. This helps us date the rock layers and is called relative dating. Example layers include the Vishnu Schist, Bright Angel Shale, Kaibab Limestone, and the Coconino Sandstone. 

The oldest rock layer in the Grand Canyon is 1.7 billion years old. This is called the Vishnu Schist and it formed from cooling magma. No fossils are found in this layer because of the extreme heat and pressure during the rock formation. The Bright Angel Shale and the Kaibab Limestone layers are the next rock layers up. They were both formed at different times when the area was covered in a warm, shallow sea. The Bright Angel Shale is between 543 and 490 million years old and contains fossils of worm-like creatures and trilobites. The Kaibab Limestone is around 150 million years old and contains fossils of sponges, corals, fish and sharks. Next up is the Coconino Sandstone layer, which was formed during a period of desert landscape and is around 260 million years old. The fossils here include insects, spiders, and scorpions. 

The Grand Canyon has a lot of fossils in each layer. Some are index fossils that help us understand the geologic history of the Colorado Plateau because they are widespread, abundant, and limited in geologic time. There are different types of organisms found within the different rock layers. Some of these organisms were on land and some of them lived in water. This shows that there were different environments at different times that created these different rock layers. Since some fossils are different between the rock layers, we know that there must have been several extinctions throughout history. 

Further north is Zion Canyon. Zion Canyon was formed by river erosion. Zion shows the next few rock layers in geologic time. For example, the Moenkopi Formation is between 248 and 206 million years old. It contains layers of sandstone and limestone and has fossil footprints of reptiles and amphibians. This layer was formed by shallow seas. The Kayenta Formation is around 206 million years old and contains fossils of dinosaur tracks. The Kayenta Formation was formed by rivers and lakes. 

Continuing north we get to Bryce Canyon. Bryce Canyon was formed by weathering from water and ice. Bryce Canyon has the Claron Formation of rocks which is between 65 and 1.8 million years old, the youngest layer on the Colorado Plateau. This layer was carved out by erosion and weathering. Mammal fossils are found here in Bryce Canyon. 

Taken together, the canyons of the Colorado Plateau give us a glimpse of 1.7 billion years of Earth’s history because they let us see the many rock layers that are normally hidden beneath our feet. We understand what the Earth used to be like because certain rock layers mean that they were laid down in certain environments. We also know how old they are because of relative dating techniques.

Structural adaptations protect animals in extreme temperatures. An emperor penguin has a  thick coat of fat under their skin called blubber to trap heat from leaving their bodies. In addition to  having blubber, penguins have other adaptations that prevent their bodies from losing too much heat.  This helps the penguin keep a normal body temperature. Humans also have a normal body  temperature. A normal body temperature for humans is 98.6℉ or 37℃. This is necessary for survival,  just like penguins. Their normal body temperature is 40℃. Since their feet are exposed to the  elements quite often, they cannot be covered with blubber or feathers to help them stay warm.  

A penguin’s feet also help walk around icy surfaces without slipping and when swimming. In  addition to having thick, windproof, or waterproof coats, emperor penguins have special nasal  passages that can recover heat loss through breathing in addition to their closely aligned veins and  arteries. All of these adaptations help emperor penguins retain heat in order to survive.  

Why don’t penguin’s feet freeze? Penguins’ feet can keep heat in by not allowing blood to flow  in really cold weather. Their feet work like a heat exchange system; their blood vessels to and from  their feet are very thin and are twisted together. The blood is cooled that is moving away from their  bodies on the way to their feet and heated as it returns back to their bodies. With this structural  adaptation, their feet get cool blood, so they lose less heat allowing their bodies to stay warm. This  special ability helps penguins to keep their eggs warm until they are ready to hatch.  

Emperor penguins also have short stiff tails that allow them to learn backwards and balance  on their heels and their tail. This also helps the penguin reduce heat loss from their feet when on the  ground. Another physical adaptation that emperor penguins have is the color of their bodies. This  helps them camouflage when swimming because from above their dark backs blend in with the ocean  and from below, blending in with the sky. 

Emperor penguins also adapt behaviorally to their environment. Penguins in Antarctica form  large huddles to share body warmth, and as a shelter against the harsh winds. When in a huddle  emperor penguins will constantly move so that all the penguins can have a turn in the middle. This  behavioral adaptation can reduce heat loss by up to 50%. Emperor penguins also breed in the winter  so that their offspring can be independent during the summer when there is more food to catch.  

Another behavioral adaptation of the emperor penguin is their migration patterns. They make  yearly travels which bring them inland to breed in March. When summer begins the emperor penguin  and their young return to the sea to feed.

Science Idea A: Pathogens - Bacteria/Viruses 

Science Idea B: Pathogenesis 

Science Idea C: Tick life cycles 

Science Idea D: Limiting factors and carrying capacity 

Science Idea E: Human activity and ecosystem dynamics 

Science Idea F: Changing ecosystems due to changing conditions 

Science Idea G: Impact of human activity on biodiversity/habitat fragmentation 

Science Idea A: Geologic time 

Science Idea B: Relative dating, Principle of superposition, Index fossils 

Science Idea C: Depositional environments 

Science Idea A: Structural Adaptation (I) 

Science Idea B: Structural Adaptation (II) 

Science Idea C: Behavioral Adaptations 

Science Idea A: Pathogens - Bacteria and Viruses 

• Students research specific diseases, connecting diseases to specific pathogens. 

Science Idea B: Pathogenesis - virulence 

• Students read articles, maps, and data, considering competence of different tick hosts and Lyme disease‘s distribution in the US. 

Science Idea C: Tick Life Cycles 

• Students create short skits in groups and create their own visual for tick life cycle.

Science Idea D: Limiting factors and carrying capacity 

• Students use online simulation and participate in “Oh Deer!” activity. 

Science Idea E: Human activity and ecosystem dynamics 

• Students use data about different ecosystems that have been affected by humans in differing ways. 

Science Idea F: Changing ecosystems due to changing conditions 

• Students analyze current and historical data of Chimborazo to make conclusions about how changing conditions affect ecosystems 

Science Idea G: Impact of Human Activity on Biodiversity/Habitat Fragmentation 

• Through “Hula Hoop Biodiversity”, the habitat biodiversity activity, students understand that biodiversity of an ecosystem depends on many interconnected factors and that an effect on one factor can influence all the others.

Science Idea A: Geologic time 

• Geologic timeline activities

Science Idea B: Relative dating, Principle of superposition, Index fossils

• “Who’s on First” activity

Science Idea C: Depositional environments 

• “Build a Grand Canyon” activity, NOVA - Making North America Clip

Science Idea A: Structural Adaptation (I) 

• Australian Antarctic Program; Emperor Penguins https://www.antarctica.gov.au/about-antarctica/animals/penguins/emperor-penguins/

Science Idea B: Structural Adaptation (II) 

• Penguin Adaptations Game 

• https://learning.rzss.org.uk/mod/hvp/view.php?id=18 54

Science Idea C: Behavioral Adaptations 

• Why do Penguins Feet Not Freeze?  

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VPynxcDvmF0 Penguins… Ice Skating!!!  

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eQquEh6zQ5c